THE INCREASING NUMBER OF THE POOR

What does it mean to be poor? How is poverty measured?  What does it mean to describe a nation as “developing”? A lack of material wealth does not necessarily mean that one is deprived. A strong economy in a developed nation doesn’t mean much when a significant percentage (even a majority) of the population is struggling to survive.

The International Comparison Programme (ICP) of the World Bank has just released a report on the new number of poor societies in worldwide. the entitled as "The developing world is poorer than we thought, but no less successful in the fight against poverty", the report states: the number of poor has increased dramatically in the recent years

The new estimates, according to the World Bank, offer a more accurate information of cost of living in the developing countries and set a new poverty line of US$ 1.25 a day. This new poverty line is the average national poverty line of the poorest 10-20 countries. The report further noted that Africa is the worst of all in the fight against poverty worldwide.

As for the other regions of the world, the report utilizes the median poverty line - US$ 2 a day in 2005 prices. By this standard, the report argues that the poverty rate has fallen since 1981 in Latin America, Middle East and North Africa. However, the report acknowledges that such progress has been insufficient to create a dramatic decrease in the total number of the poor.

The campaign to raise the minimum wage will have little positive impact on the lives of poor people. Conversely, it is a political measure that plays to a misunderstanding of the impact of higher minimum wages. The future of the economy depends on a correct understanding of the causes of prosperity. For too long, attempts to relieve poverty have been misguided. To lift people out of poverty, we need a system that maximizes opportunities for economic well being of low skilled workers.

Making Pizza Mie

PUISI | HIDUP ADALAH PILIHAN

HIDUP ADALAH PILIHAN


HIDUP INI APAKAH ARTINYA???
HIDUP INI APAKAH TUJUANNYA??
YANG AKU TAU HIDUP ITU ADALAH PILIHAN....

PILIHAN MANAKAH YANG AKAN KITA TEMPUH??
PILIHAN MANAKAH YANG AKAN KITA JALANI??
SEMUANYA TERGANTUNG KITA DALAM MEMILIH JALAN HIDUP ITU SENDIRI....

KITA BISA MELIHAT KORUPTOR YANG DI BUI...
KITA BISA MELIHAT PENCURI YANG DI BUI..
KITA BISA MELIHAT ORANG YANG SEDERHANA TAPI DISEGANI...
KITA BISA MELIHAT ORANG MISKIN TAPI TETAP MENJAGA HARGA DIRI...
SEMUA ITU ADALAH TANDA BAHWA HIDUP ADALAH PILIHAN YANG HARUS DIJALANI....

TAK ADA MANUSIA YANG BISA MENGELAK DARI PILIHAN HIDUP....
TAK ADA MANUSIA YANG BISA MENGELAK DARI PERJALANAN HIDUP...
DAN TAK ADA MANUSIA YANG BISA MENOLAK DI DALAM MEMILIH JALAN HIDUP...

LOGO MTS AS-SURUR

LOGO YAYASAN AS-SURUR

TEACHING ENGLISH FOR LEARNERS

TEFL

1. APPROACH: A SET OF ASSUMPTION DEALING WITH THE NATURE OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND TEACHING. ORAL APPROACH: LANGUAGE IS SPEECH. COMMUNICATION: LANGUAGE IS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD: THE WAY TO TEACH FL IS BY TRANSLATION GRAMMAR.

2. TEHNIQUE: SPECIFIC ACTIVITIES IN THE CLASSROOM THAT ARE CONSISTENT WITH A METHOD AND THEREFORE IN HARMONY WITH AN APPROACH AS WELL.

3. METHOD: AN OVERALL PLAN FOR SYSTEMATIC PRESENTATION OF LANGUAGE BASED ON SELECTED APPROACH.

4. GRAMMAR TRANSLATION METHOD: HELPING STUDENTS TO READ AND UNDERSTAND FOREIGN LANGUAGE LITERATURE. AND HOPED THE STUDENTS WOULD BECOME MORE FAMILIAR WITH THE LANGUAGE. PRINCIPLES: GOALS OF TEACHER: TO BE ABLE TO READ LITERATURE WRITTEN IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE, SO STUDENTS NEED TO LEARN ABOUT THE GRAMMAR AND VOCABULARY OF THE TARGET LANGUAGE. TEACHER’S AND STUDENTS’ ROLES: THE TEACHER IS THE LEADER OF THE CLASS AND STUDENTS DO AS HE SAYS.  TEACHING LEARNING PROCESS CHARACTERISTICS: STUDENTS ARE STUDY TO TRANSLATE ONE LANGUAGE TO ANOTHER. EMPHASIZE: LANGUAGE COMPONENT (VOCABULARY AND GRAMMAR) AND SKILL (READING AND WRITING). ROLE OF STUDENTS’ NATIVE LANGUAGE : THE MEANING OF THE TARGET LANGUAGE IS MADE CLEAR BY TRANSLATING IT INTO THEIR STUDENTS’ NATIVE LANGUAGE. TEACHERS’ RESPONSES  TO STUDENTS’ ERROR: COMPLETE THE CORRECT FORM.

5. TECHNIQUES OF GTM: TRANSLATION OF A LITERARY PASSAGE, READING COMPREHENSION QUESTIONS, ANTONYMS-SYNONYMS, COGNATES, DEDUCTIVE APPLICATION RULES, FILL IN THE BLANKS, MEMORIZATION, USE WORD IN SENTENCES, COMPOSITION.

6. DIRECT METHOD: THE WAY OF TEACHING ENGLISH WITHOUT TRANSLATION BUT USING NATIVE TONGUE, AND MEANING WAS TRANSFERRED DIRECTLY THROUGH DEMONSTRATION AND ACTION. AS FOR THE NEW VOCABULARY TEACHING BY USING DEMONSTRATION/PICTURES. PRINCIPLES: STUDENTS AND TEACHER ARE PARTNER IN LEARNING ACTIVITIES. TEACHERS USE THE DIRECT METHOD INTEND THAT STUDENTS LEARN HOW TO COMMUNICATE IN THE TARGET LANGUAGE. LANGUAGE IS PRIMARILY SPOKEN. VOCABULARY EMPHASIZED OVER GRAMMAR. STUDENTS’ NATIVE LANGUAGE SHOULD NOT BE USED IN THE CLASSROOM. TEACHER RESPONDS TO STUDENTS ERROR BY USING VARIOUS TECHNIQUES.

7. TECHNIQUE OF DIRECT METHOD: READING ALOUD, QUESTION AND ANSWER EXERCISE, GETTING THE STUDENTS TO SELF CORRECT, CONVERSATION PRACTICE, FILL IN THE BLANK EXERCISE, DICTATION, MAP DRAWING, PARAGRAPH WRITING.

8. AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD: THE WAY OF TEACHING ENGLISH BY THE INTRODUCTION OF LANGUAGE, THE FOCUS ON ACCURACY THROUGH DRILL AND PRACTICE IN THE BASIC STRUCTURE AND SENTENCE PATTERN OF THE TARGET LANGUAGE. PRINCIPLES: LANGUAGE IS SPEECH, LANGUAGE IS A SET OF HABITS, LANGUAGE IS A SYSTEMATIC THAT RELATED TO STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS, NEW VOCABULARY AND STRUCTURE ARE PRESENTED THROUGH DIALOGUE AND DRILL, DIALOGUES ARE LEARNED THROUGH IMITATION AND REPETITION, TEACHER AS MODEL AND STUDENTS AS IMITATORS, EMPHASIZE ON SPEAKING AND LISTENING ABILITIES. THE STRONGEST OF ALM: TRAIN THE STUDENTS IN LISTENING COMPREHENSION, ACCURATE IN PRONOUNCIATION, RECOGNITION OF SPEECH SYMBOL. THE WEAKNESS OF ALM: STUDENTS DO NOT UNDERSTAND WHAT IS SAID. TEACHER DOMINATES IN TEACHING AND LEARNING ACTIVITY, THE METHOD STRESSES ON THE MECHANISM ASPECT OF LANGUAGE LEARNING AND LANGUAGE USE.

9. TECHNIQUES OF AUDIO LINGUAL METHOD: DIALOGUE MEMORIZATION, BACKWARD BUILD UP (EXPANSION) EXERCISE, REPETITION EXERCISE, CHAIN EXERCISE SINGLE SLOT SUBTITUTION EXERCISE, TRANSFORMATION EXERCISE, QUESTION ANSWER EXERCISE, USE OF MINIMAL PAIRS, COMPLETE THE DIALOGUE, GRAMMAR GAME.

10. SILENT WAY: THE WAY OF TEACHING ENGLISH BY DIRECTING AND MONITORING THESTUDENTS’ PERFORMANCE ABOUT HOW LANGUAGE WORKS.    

11. SUUGESTOPEDIA: THE WAY OF TEACHING ENGLISH BY THE TEACHER’S MOTIVATION FOR STUDENTS TO SPEAK ENGLISH IN DAILY CONVERSATION.

12. COMMUNITY LANGUAGE LEARNING: THE WAY OF TEACHING ENGLISH TROUGH THE ROLE OF CONSELORS IN PSYCHOLOGICAL CONSELING.

13. TOTAL PHYSICAL RESPONSE METHOD: THE WAY OF TEACHING ENGLISH BY THE ROLE OF COMPREHENSION IN THE SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND SHOULD BE USED WITH OTHER METHODS AND TECHNIQUES. PRINCIPLES: HAVING THE STUDENS ENJOY THEIR EXPERIENCE IN LEARNING TO COMMUNICATE IN FOREIGN LANGUAGE. THE TEACHER IS A LEADER OF STUDENTS, THE INTERACTION BETWEEN TEACHER AND STUDENTS IS CHARACTERIZED BY THE TEACHER SPEAKING AND STUDENTS RESPONDING, LATER ON, THE STUDENTS BECOME MORE VERBAL AND THE TEACHER RESPONDS NONVERBALLY. THE INTERACTION BETWEEN STUDENTS-STUDENTS IS CHARACTERIZED BY STUDENTS PERFORMING THE ACTION TOGETHER. TECHNIQUES: USING COMMANDS TO DIRECT BEHAVIOUR, ROL REVESAL, ACTION SEQUENCE.

14. COMMUNICATIVE APPROACH: THE WAY OF TEACHING ENGLISH BY THE MORE HUMANISTIC APPROACH AND THE INTERACTIVE PROCESSES BY THE COMMUNICATION PRIORITY IT ENABLING THE STUDENTS IN COMMUNICATE USING THE TARGET LANGUAGE. PRINCIPLES: THE GOAL IS TO HAVE ONE’S STUDENTS BECOME COMMUNICATIVELY COMPETENT. LANGUAGE IS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION, LEARNING BY DOING, MISTAKE IS NOT ALWAYS REGARDED AS A MISTAKE. LEARNING FROM A WHOLE TO PART, PROCESS IS AS IMPORTANT AS THE FORM, TEACHER IS A FACILITATORS AND STUDENTS ARE NEGOTIATORS, STRUCTURE IS TAUGHT THEMATICALLY. THE STRONG OF CA: MOTIVATES THE TEACHER, FOCUSES ON STUDENTS’ NEED AND BACKGROUND, STUDENTS ARE ACTIVE IN DOING COMMUNICATION, ENCOURAGES THE STUDENTS TO HAVE COMMUNICATIVE COMPETENCE. THE WEAKNEES OF CA: GRAMMAR IS NOT TAUGHT IN DETAIL. THE STUDENTS HAVE DIFFICULTIES HOW TO MAKE THE CORRECT SENTENCE, MOST OF THEM ARE LACK OF HAVING VOCABULARY, MOST OF THEM DO NOT UNDERSTAND HOW TO EXPRESS THE IDEAS GIVEN IN WRITTEN, TEACHER CAN’T CORRECT THE STUDENTS MISTAKE CORRECTLY. TECHNIQUES: AUTHENTIC MATERIALS, SCRAMBLED SENTENCES, LANGUAGE GAMES, PICTURE STRIP STORY, ROLE PLAY.

15. MEANINGFULNESS APPROACH: LANGUAGE IS A MEANS OF EXPRESSING IDEAS, THOUGHT, AND FEELING IN LINE WITH CULTURE OF THE LANGUAGE. CHARACTERISTICS: LANGUAGE IS AMEANS FOR EXPRESSING MEANING, THROUGH STRUCTURE, MEANING IS DETERMINED BY ITS CONTEXT FOR EACH SITUATION IN THE SENTENCE, LEARNING LANGUAGE IS LEARNING TO USE THE LANGUAGE AS A MEANS OF COMMUNICATION. THE MATERIALS STRUCTURE AND VOCABULARY SUPPORT THE LANGUAGE SKILL.  

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

SOCIOLINGUISTICS

1.    SOCIOLOGY: TALK ABOUT SOCIETY.

2.    SOCIOLINGUISTICS IS THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE IN RELATION TO SOCIETY (HUDSON)

3.    DIVISIONS: MACROLINGUISTICS: IS THE STUDY OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN SOCIETY AND LANGUAGE. IT INVESTIGATES HOW SOCIAL STRUCTURE INFLUENCES THE WAY PEOPLE TALK AND HOW LANGUAGE VARIETIES OF USE CORRELATE WITH SOCIAL ATTRIBUTE SUCH AS CLASS, GENDER, SEX, AND AGE. MICROLINGUISTICS: IS THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE USED IN THE SMALL GROUP INTERACTION. IN INVESTIGATES WHAT SOCIETIES DO WITH THEIR LANGUAGE: SPEECH ACTS, SPEECH EVEN, ETC. SPEECH ACT: IS AN UTTERANCE AS FUNCTIONAL UNIT IN COMMUNICATION AND IT IS DISTRIBUTED INTO TWO PARTS: PROPORTIONAL MEANING: MEANING IS THE BASIC SEPARATE MEANING OF THE UTTERANCE WHICH IS MOVED BY THE PARTICULAR WORDS OF LANGUAGE. ILLUCTIONAR MEANING IS THE EFFECT OF UTTERANCE OR WRITTEN TEXT WHICH HAS READER AND LISTENER. SPEECH EVEN IS PARTICULAR PURPOSE WHEN PEOPLE EXCHANGE IN GREETING AND INQUIRING. THE ELEMENTS OF SPEECH EVENT ARE SETTING, PARTICIPANT, THE ROLE OF RELATIONSHIP, MESSAGE AND MEDIA.

4.    VARIETY IS THE SET OF LINGUISTIC ITEMS ON THE SIMILAR SOCIAL DISTRIBUTION.

5.    LANGUAGE VARIETIES: PIDGIN: A.  BAHASA BARU DARI CAMPURAN BEBERAPA BAHASA. B.  A LANGUAGE WITH NATIVE SPEAKER,  C. A CONTACT LANGUAGE BECAUSE THERE IS NO ONE FIRST LANGUAGE USED. D. THE PRODUCT OF MULTILINGUALISM SITUATION IN WHICH THOSE WHO WISH TO COMMUNICATE MUST FIND OR IMPROVISE A SIMPLE LANGUAGE SYSTEM THAT WILL ANABLE THEM TO DO SO. E. OCCURS USUALLY IN EQUATOR AREA, BECAUSE THERE ARE A LOT OF NEWS COMERS WITH DIFFERENT LANGUAGES AND THEY HAVE IN INTERACT EACH OTHER USING ALTERNATIVE LANGUAGE. CREOLE: A. A PIDGIN THAT HAS BECOME THE FIRST LANGUAGE OF A NEW GENERATION OF SPEAKERS. B. A PIDGIN WHICH HAS EXTENDED IN STRUCTURE AND VOCABULARY TO EXPRESS THE RANGE OF MEANINGS AND SERVE THE RANGE OF FUNCTIONS REQUIRED OF A FIRST LANGUAGE, C. CREOLIZATION IS THE PROCESS OF PIDGIN TURNING INTO CREOLE.

6.    SOCIAL VARIABLES WHICH MAKES LANGUAGE VARIETIES APPEAR: AGE: GENDER: SOCIAL ATTRIBUTE WHICH OWNED BY A MEMBER OF A SOCIETY. ETHNICITY: ETHNOLECT IS A LANGUAGE VARIETY WHICH APPEARS BECAUSE OF ETHNIC VARIETIES. SOCIAL STATUS: SOCIOLECT IS DIFFERENT LANGUAGE VARIETY WHICH APPEARS BECAUSE OF SOCIAL STATUS OF THE SPEAKERS. GEOGRAPHY: DIALECT IS A VARIETY OF LANGUAGE IN RELATION IN THE PLACE WHERE THE SPEAKER LIVE AND IS CONSISTENCE DIFFERENCES IN PRONOUNCIATION, VOCABULARY, INTONATION, STRESS, AND ASSOCIATED TO THE GEOGHRAPHICAL LOCATION. DIGLOSSIA: IS THE LANGUAGE VARIETY AS THE RESULT OF CERTAINS STATUS, LOCATION AND SITUATION OF THE SPEAKERS. INDIVIDUAL: IDOLECT IS THE VARIETY OF LANGUAGE IN RELATION TO INDIVIDUAL FEATURES.

7.    CHOOSING CODE: DIGLOSSIA: IS THE USE OF TWO DIFFERENT LANGUAGE VARIETIES FOR DIFFERENT PURPOSES IN COMMUNITIES. BILLINGUALISM: IS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A SPEAKER OR A COMMUNITY WHO USE TWO LANGUAGE. MULTILINGUALISM: IS THE CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMMUNITY WHO USE TWO LANGUAGE. CODE SWITCHING: IS A CHANGE FORM ONE LANGUAGE VARIETY BECAUSE OF THE SITUATION CHANGING AND IN ORDER TO UNDERSTAND EACH OTHER. 1. SITUATIONAL CODE SWITCHING: SITUATION CLAIMS US TO MOVE OR CHANGE CODE OR LANGUAGE TO ANOTHER. 2. METAPHORICAL CODE SWITCHING: TOPIC CLAIMS US TO MOVE OR CHANGE OUR LANGUAGE OR CODE TO ANOTHER. CODE MIXING: IS THE VARIETY OF LANGUAGE USED BY SPEAKER WITH ANOTHER VARIETY TO EMPHASIZE MEANING: MENCAMPUR ADUKAN BAHASA KODE/PENGGUNAAN BERBAGAI BAHASA DALAM SATU TOPIK PADA SITUASI ATAU SAAT TERTENTU UNTUK MENYAMPAIKAN MAKSUD DAN AGAR LEBIH GAYA DALAM PIDATO) BORROWING IS THE CHANGING PROCESS FROM ONE VARIETY INTO ANOTHER VARIETY TO MAKE THE DOMINANT LANGUAGE. STANDARD LANGUAGE: IS THE ONLY KIND OF VARIETY, WHICH WOULD BE CALCULATED AS THE PROPER OF FORMAL LANGUAGE, AND ALSO ACCEPTED AND USED BY SOCIETY. – A LANGUAGE CAN BECOME LANGUAGE STANDARD BY PASSING SELECTION. CODIFICATION (MUST HAVE WRITTEN DICTIONARIES OR GRAMMAR BOOK TO FIX VARIETY). ELABORATION OF FUNCTION, AND ACCEPTANCE.

8.    SPEECH COMMUNITY IS AGROUP OF PEOPLE WHO INTERACT BY SPEECH MEANS.

9.    INTERSECTING COMMUNITY INDICATING THE SPEAKERS OF PLACES HAVE SOME IDEA OF HOW A TYPICAL PERSON FROM EACH TYPICAL SPEAKES, THAT IS OF WHAT IT’S LIKE TO BE A MEMBER OF PARTICULAR SPEECH COMMUNITY. NEWYORK SPEECH, LONDON SPEECH. ETC.

10. REGIONAL AND SOCIAL VARIATION: DIALECT ATTRASES: ARE MAPS TO HOW GEOGHRAPICAL LIMIT OF THE DISTRIBUTION OF A PARTICULAR LINGUISTICS FEATURE BY DRAWING A LINE (ISOGLOSS) OR ISOGLOSS ARE LINES ON MAP TO SHOW MANY TOTAL OF CROSSING AND THAT A PARTICULAR SET OF LINGUISTICS FEATURE APPEARS TO TO BE SPREADING FR4OM ONE SELECTION (A LOCAL AREA) INTO NEIGHBORING LOCATION.

11. REGISTER IS THE SET OF VOVABULARY ITEMS ASSOCIATED WITH THE SEPARATED ACCORDING TO PROFESSION AND THE SOCIAL GROUP: AIRLINES PILOT, BANK MANAGERS, SALES SHOP ASSISTANCE, MUSICIANS, ETC. HAVE DIFFERENTS REGISTER (MASING-MASING KELOMPOK MEMILIKI PEMBENDAHARAAN YANG BERBEDA)

12. TALK IS KEEPING COMMUNICATION OPEN AMONG INDIVIDUALS. IT OFFERS AN EMOTIONAL RELEASE AND CAN BE USED TO PREPARE INDIVIDUALS THAT THEY ARE STEPPING OUT OF BONDS. SO PURPOSE OF POTENTIALLY DANGEROUS CONFLICT BETWEEN INDIVIDUALS.

13. SILENCE IS AN INDIVIDUAL’S BEHAVIOUR TO COMMUNICATE RESPECT, COMFORT, DISAGREEMENT, OR UNCERTAINTY.

14. ETHNOGRAPH OF COMMUNICATIONIS A DESCRIPTION OF ALL THE FACTORS, THAT ARE RELEVANT IN UNDERSTANDING HOW THAT PARTICULAR COMMUNICATIVES EVENT ACHIEVES IY IS OBJECTIVES. SETTING/SCENE OF SPEECH: REFERS TO THE TIME AND PLACE. IN WHICH THE SPEECH TAKE SPLACE. PARTICIPANTS INCLUDE VARIOUS COMBINATIONS OF SPEAKER-LISTENER, ADRESSOR-AUDIENCE, OR SENDER-RECEIVER. ENDS: REFERS TO THE USUAL TRADITION KNOWN AND HOPED THE RESULT OF AN EXCHANGE AS WELL AS TO THE PERSONAL GOALS THAT PARTICIPANTS SEEK TO DO ON PARTICULAR EVENT. ACT SEQUENCE: REFERS TO THE ACTUAL FORM AND CONTENT OF WHAT IS SAID, THE ACCURATE WORD USED, HOW THEY ARE USED, AND THE RELATIONSHIP OF WHAT IS SAID TO THE ACTUAL TOPIC. KEY: REFERS TO THE TONE, MANNER, OR SPIRIT IN WHICH A PARTICULAR MESSAGE IS TRANSFERED: LIGHT-HEARTED, SERIOUS, ACCURATE, SARCASTIC. ETC. INSTRUMENTALITIES: REFERS TO THE CHOICE OF CHANNEL SUCH AS: LANGUAGE, DIALECT, CODE, REGISTERS. ETC. NORMS OF INTERACTION AND INTERPRETATION: REFER TO THE SPECIFIC BEHAVIOUR AND PROPERTIES THAT ATTACH TO SPEAKING AND ALSO TO HOW THESE MAY BE VIEWED TO SOMEONE/WHO DOES NOT SHARE THEM: LOUDNESS, SILENCE, ETC. GENRE: REFERS TO CLEARLY TYPE OF UTTERANCE: SUCH AS THINGS AS POEM, IDIOM, RIDDLE, SPEECH, PRAYERS, LECTURES, ETC.

15. FORMATIVES CATEGORIES (AUSTIN) FERDICTIVES: TYPED BY GIVING A VERDICT/DECISION, ESTIMATE, GRADE, OR ASSESMENT. EXERCITIVIES: THE EXERCISING OF POWERS, RIGHT, OR INFLUENCES AS IN ORDERING/COMMAND, WARNING OR ANNOUNCING: I ANNOUNCE YOUR HUSBAND AND WIFE. COMMISSIVES: TYPED BY PROMOTING AND TO DO SOMETHING BY, FOR EXAMPLE: ANNOUNCING AN PURPOSE PRINCIPLE A CAUSE. BEHABITIVES: HAVING TO DO WITH SUCH MATTERS AS APOLOGING, CONGRATULATING, ETC. EXPOSITIVES: REFERS TO HOW ONE MAKES UTTERANCE INTO AN ARGUMENT OR EXPOSITION.

16. LANGUAGE AND GENDER: A. GENDER IS A SOCIAL CONCEPT INVOLVING THE ALL OF PSYCHOLOGICAL SOCIAL, AND CULTURAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN MALES AND FEMALES. B. SEX IS DEFINE BIOLOGICALLY, C. GENDER DIFFERENCES: 1. DIFFERENCES IN VOICE QUALITY BETWEEN MALE AND FEMALE. 2. DIFFERENCES IN ORAL SKILLS. 3. DIFFERENT ROLES IN SOCIETY AND DIFFERENT JOBS WHICH MAY CAUSE WOMEN LIVE LONGER THAN MEN. 4. PHONOLOGICAL DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE SPEECH OF MEN AND WOMEN. 5. DIFFERENCES IN WORD CHOICE.  D. RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN LANGUAGE AND GENDER: 1. DIFFERENT GENDER (MALE AND FEMALE) USE OF LANGUAGE DIFFERENTLY WHEN THEY ARE SPEAKING A LANGUAGE. 2. THE DIFFERENCES MAY BE THE RESULT OF DIFFERENT SOCIALIZATION AND ACCULTURATION PATTERN. E. DIFFERENCES OF LANGUAGE USE BETWEEN MEN AND WOMEN.

MEN	WOMEN
-          SPEAK MORE THAN WOMEN DO	-          SPEAK LESS THAN MEN DO
-          TOPIC: COMPETITION, SPORTS, AND DOING THINGS.	-          FREQUENTLY INTERRUPT WOMEN.
-          FREQUENTLY INTERRUPTS WOMEN	-          MUCH LESS INTERRUPT MEN.
-          CHALLENGE, DEBATE, AND IGNORE MORE.	-          ASK MORE QUESTION THAN MEN DO.
-          COMPETITIVE, INDEPENDENCE, AND VERTICAL RELATIONSHIP (POWER RATHER THAN SOLIDARITY)	-          SUPPORTIVE AND NON COMPETITIVE.

17. FORMULATION: IS THE ABILITY TO ARRANGE WORDS, IS INFLUENCED BY POLITENESS AND APPROPIATENESS, AS THE CONDUCTOR AND ORCHESTATOR OF SPEECH SOUND: KARL LASLEY: A. THE TONGUE PROVIDES CLEAR INSIGHT INTO OUR STANDING OF HOW SPEECH IS FORMULATED. IT EXPLAIN THAT WHEN WE FORMULATED SPEECH WE’RE NOT ONLY INFLUENCED BY THE SOUND SYSTEM OF THE LANGUAGE WE ARE SPEAKING, WE ARE ALSO CONDITIONED BY THE WAY WORDS. B. THE POWER OF ARRANGING IN GUIDING THE DIRECTION OF SPEECH PRODUCTION AND COMPREHENSION.

18. ARTICULATION: IS THE MUSIC OR INSTRUMENTS OF OUR VOICE, SPEECH ARTICULATORS, LARYNX, PARYNX, LUNG, LIPS, LARYNX IS THE VOICE BOX WHICH HOUSES OF OUR VOCAL CORDS. PHARYNX IS A PASSAGE WAY. THE PROCESS OF ARTICULATION MIGHT APPEAR TO BE LINEAR, BUT THE LUNGS, LARYNX AND LIPS MAY BE WORKING AT ALL THE SAME TIME, AND CO-ARTICULATION IS THE NORM.

19. SELF MONITORING: PEOPLE CAN COMMUNICATE TO THEMSELVES TO KNOW THE ERRORS AND MISTAKES (CHOMSKY). ANY MISTAKES IN LINGUISTICS SHOW THE ATTENDANCE BETWEEN PERFORMANCE AND COMPETENCE. PERFORMANCE: IS THE SHOW OF OUR ABILITY IN LANGUAGE, THE WORDS WE SAY OR WRITE. COMPETENCE: ABOUT THE LANGUAGE WE HAVE MASTERED. IT MONITORS PERFORMANCE TO MAKE SURE THE OUR PRODUCTION IS ACCURATE.

20. COMPREHENSION: UNDERSTANDING WHAT WE HEAR OR SEE. SOUNDS, WORDS, SENTENCES, TEXTS.

21. DISSOLUTION: LANGUAGE LOSS: EVIDENCE FOR APHASIA: - NEURROLINGUISTICS IS AN OFFSPRING OF PSYCHOLINGUISTICS WHICH INVESTIGATES THE HUMAN BRAIN CREATES AND PROCESSES SPEECH AND LANGUAGE. – SENSORYCORTEX IS THE PRIMARY LOCATION FOR PROCESSING ALL SENSASITIONS TO THE BRAIN FROM THE BODY. – APHASIA: IS THE LOSS OF SPEECH OR LANGUAGE DUE TO BRAIN BROKEN. – KIND OF APHASIA: 1. BROCA’S APHASIA: THE PRODUCTION OF KEY WORDS LIKE SUBJECTS, VERBS AND OBJECTS IS DOUBTFUL AND INACCURATE. CHARACTERISTIC: SPEECH AND WRITING ARE SLOW, VERY DOUBTFUL, AND ANXIETY, COMPREHENSION IS RELATIVELY SPARED. 2. WERNIEKE’S APHASIA: INABILITI TO. SPEECH AND LAGUAGE DISORDER: - SUTTERING/STAMMERING: IS A COMMON SPEECH PROBLEMS FOUND BY SPEECH PATHOLOGISTS, WHICH OCCUR MOST FREQUENTLY ON THE INITIAL WORD OF A SYLLABLE, AND ON STOP CONSONANT. IT IS CAUSED BY THE ABSENCE OF UNAMBIGUOUS LATERALIZATION OF SPEECH TO THE LEFT HEMISPHERE. – AUSTIN/CHILDHOOD SCHIZOPHRENIA: CAUSED BY HUMAN INTERACTION AND IN CONTRAST TO A NORMAL CHILD, IGNORE AGE AND FACE CONTACT. CREATES A LACK OF SOCIAL INTERACTION AND EARLY COMMUNICATIVE BONDING. – LANGUAGE LOSS FORM INHERITTEED DISORDER. DOWN SYNDROME. A DISORDER THAT OCCURS ABOUT ONCE IN EVERY 600 BIRTHS AND ALONG WITH MARKED ANATOMICAL ABNORMALISTICS, LEAVES THE CHILD MODERATELY TO SEVERELY UNPAIRED IN ALL COGNITIVE FUNCTIONS. IT CREATES POOR ARTICULATION AND THROUGH COMPREHENSION IS NOT SIGNIFICANTLY AFFECTED, EXPRESSIVE SPEECH IS DOUBTFUL AND LIMITED. – LANGUAGE LOSS THROUGH AGING: LONG AND SHORT TER MEMORIES.

22. SENTENCE COMPREHENSION AND MEMORY: - PROCESSING UNITS: SENTENCE- CLAUSE- PHRASE-WORD: - A SENTENCE/CLAUSE AS PROCESSING UNITS: 1. AT THE END OF A SENTENCE, THE INTERPRETER CAN JOIN INFORMATION TO SUMMARY. 2. AFTER SUMMARY HE ELIMINATE FROM WORKING MEMPRY MOST INDIVIDUAL WORDS AS WELL AS SYNTACTIC STRUCTURE, TO MAKE WAY FOR A NEW SENTENCE/CLAUSE. PARSING STRATEGY: FUNCTION TO COMPREHEND A SENTENCE. IS THE STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS OF A SENTENCE TO SORT OUT WHICH WORD OR PHRASE IS THE S.O. COMPLEMENT, AND THE MODIFIER IN RELATION TO A VERB. THE STRATEGIES ARE: CANONICAL NVN=SVO: CLEAR MARK INCLUDE PUNCTUATION MARKS IN WRITTEN TEXTS IN SPEECH. E.G, WHY CAN’T WE EAT, JOHN? JOHN, WHY CAN’T WE EAT? LATE-CLOSURE: THE PARSER ATTACHES INCOMING ITEMS INTO THE CLAUSE/PHRASE CURRENTLY BEING CONSTRUCTED. MINIMAL ATTACHMENT: THE PARSERS ATTACHES MATERIAL INTO THE COMPONENTSTRUCTURED BEING CONSTRUCTED.

23. SENTENCE COMPREHENSION MODELS: AUTONOMOUS VS INERACTIVE PROCESSING: AUTONOMOUS MODULAR PROCESSOR CONSIST OF 3 PROCESSES: LEXICAL PROCESSOR: FIND AGAIN WORDS FROM THE LEXICON FROM LEXICON USING ONLY PHONOLOGICAL INFORMATION. STRUCTURAL PROCESSOR: PRODUCES A CONSTITUENT STRUCTURE FOR A SENTENCE USING ONLY SYNTACTIC INFORMATION. INTERPERATIVE PROCESSOR: IS THE PRODUCT OF STRUCTURAL PROCESSING CONSTRUCT A REPRESENTATION OF THE MEANING OF THE SENTENCESUSING THE KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORD, WHICH INTEGRATES INFORMATION OVER SENTENCES, MAKING INFERENCES OF NECESSARY (DISCOURSE PROFESSSOR). PRAGMATIC SEMANTIC VS SYNTACTIC FACTORS: PRAGMATIC AND SEMANTIC FACTORS CAN AFFECT THE PROCESSING OF A SYNTACTICALLY AMBIGOUS SENTENCE MORE THA SYNTAX DOES. SO THE INTERPRETER IS LIKELY TO USE KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORD TO ARRIVE AT PLAUSIBLE INTERPRETATION. THOSE FACTORS ARE USED INTERACTIVELY IN SENTENCE PROCESSING.

24. WORD: MEANING, MEMORY, AND RECOGNITION: WORD IS THE ASSOCIATION OF A PARTICULAR GRAMMATICAL EMPLOYMENT (TAYLOR, 1991). WORDS CAN BE EASY TO COMPREHEND AND PRODUCE IF THEY ARE COME FREQUENT AND MEANINGFUL FOR STUDENTS.

25. CHARACTERISTIC OF WORDS: DEFINABLE, LAMILIARITY, FAMILIARITY, FREQUENCY, IMAGERY, PRONOUNCEABLE, CONCRETENESS, MEANINGFULNESS.

26. MORPHEME: MORPHEME IS THE SMALLEST MEANINGFUL UNIT IN A LANGUAGE OR MEANING LINGUISTIC UNIT WHICH ALTHOUGH SMALLER THAN WORDS. E.G: UNKIND, UN MEANING NOT” FREE MORPHEME: MORPHEME WHICH CAN STAND ALONE (WORD). BOUND MORPHEME: WHICH CAN’T STAND ALONE. E,G: SUFFIXES: -IY, ED, ES, EST, D, S,  PREFIXES: -UN, DIS, IR, PRO, ANTI,

27. COMPONENT OF WORD. ROOT: OF, ABOUT, AND, IN. ETC, STEM: WORK+S= WORKS, A PART OF WORD WHICH AN INFLECTIONAL SUFFIX IS ADDED. PREFIX: ANTI, DIS,UN, ETC. DERIVATIONAL SUFFIX: -ION, EST, ABLE, NESS, ETC. INFLECTIONAL SUFFIX: -S, ES, ETC. BY KNOWING WORD COMPONENTS WE CAN COMPREHEND WORD MEANING.

28. AMBIGUOS WORD: ARE POLYSEMOUS: WORDS HAVE MORE THAN ONE MEANING HOMOPHONES: HAVE THE SAME SOUND PATTERN BUT DIFFERENT MEANING AND SPELLING.  AND HOMOGRAPH: WORDS HAVE THE SAME SPELLING BUT DIFFERENT MEANING AND SOUNDS.

29. SEMANTIC MEMORY: - WORDS AND ALL KINDS OF SEMANTIC INFORMATION ARE  SAVED IN SEMANTIC MEMORY. – SEMANTIC INFORMATION IS ORGANIZED IN MEMORY RELATES TO HOW PEOPLE RESPOND TO WORD AND THEIR INFORMATION IN A VARIETY OF VERBAL TASKS. – THE ORGANIZATION OF SEMANTIC INFORMATION IN MEMORY CAN BE INFERRED BY LOOKING AT PEOPLE’S VERBAL BEHAVIOUR SUCH AS: WORD RECOGNITION ASSOCIATION.

30. WORD ASSOCIATION: ARE TEACHED TO OPEN A PERSON’S SEMANTIC MEMORY. VERBAL HABITS, KNOWLEDGE OF OBJECT, THOUGHT PROCESS. ETC. EG: TABLE..... CHAIR.

31. WORD RECOGNITION: IT TAKES A MEASURABLE DEPENDING ON TYPES OF WORDS, CONTEXT, AND THE READER’S SKILL. STAGES: 1. LEXICAL ACCES: IS ACCESING A LEXICAL ENTRY BY MATCHING THE VISUAL CHARACTERISTIC OF A WORD WITH AN ITEM IN MENTAL LEXICON. 2. DECISION/MEANING INTERPRETATION. PROCESSES: FRELEXICAL PROCESS: ANALYZES A WRITTEN OR SPOKEN INPUT. IDENTIPYING IT AS PARTICULAR WORD, RECOGNITION IS ACHIEVED WHEN A UNIQUE ENTRY IT THE MENTAL LEXICON ACTIVATED. LEXICAL ACCES: ACTIVATES SEMANTIC, PHONOLOGICAL, ORTHOGRAPHIC, AND OTHER INFORMATION RELATED WITH LEXICAL ITEMS. POST LEXICAL ACCES SELECTA: EXPLAINS OR AND INTEGRATES LEXICAL INFORMATION IN OREDER TO COMPREHEND SENTENCES AND DISCOURSE. OTHER PROCESSES: BOTTOM UP PROCESS: WORD RECOGNITION STARTS WITH THE SENSORY DATA AND THE FORMS IN SMALL UNITS, WHICH ARE THEN COMBINED INTO LARGER ONES. TOP DOWN PROCESS: WORD RECOGNITION STARTS WITH A TARGET WORD HOPED FROM CONTEXT AND KNOWLEDGE OF THE WORLD AND CHECK WHETHER SENSORY DATA ARE CONSISTENT WITH THE TARGET.

32. L2 ACQUISITION: THE WAY PEOPLE LEARN A LANGUAGE OTHER THAN THEIR MOTHER TONGUE INSIDE OR OUTSIDE CLASSROOM. FACTORS: EXTERNAL: A. THE SOCIAL ENVIRONMENT. B. THE INPUT THAT LEARNERS RECEIVE THE SAMPLE OF LANGUAGE. INTERENAL: A. LEARNER COGNITIVE MECHANISM, B. LEARNER’S GENERAL KNOWLEDGE OF WORLD, WHICH HELP THEM TO UNDERSTAND L2 INPUT.  C. COMMUNICATION STRATEGIES. D. KNOWLEDGE OF HOW LANGUAGE IN GENERAL WORKS. E. PERSONAL FACTORS: INDIVIDUAL APPROACH TO ACQUIRING L2 SUCH AS GROUP DYNAMIC, ATTITUDE TO TEACHER AND COURSE MATERIAL.

33. BERNSTEINS'S CODE: 1. THE WAY HOW A CHILD OR PEOPLE ACQUIRES A SPECIFIC CULTURAL IDENTIFY AND RESPONDS TO THAT IDENTIFY. VARIETIES OF LANGUAGE IN USE IN SOCIETY: A. ELABORATED: FORMAL CODE IS A LANGAUGE USE WHICH POINTS TO THE POSSIBILITIES INTRINSIC IN A COMPLEX CONCEPTUAL HIERACHY FOR THE RECOGNIZING EXPERIENCE. CHARACTERISTIC: - MAKES USE OF ACCURATE GRAMMATICAL ORDER AND SYNTAX TO ARRANGE WHAT IS SAID. – USES COMPLEX SNTENCES THAT USED A RANGE OF DEVICES FOR CONJUNCTION AND SUBORDINATION. – USES PREPOSITIONS TO SHOW RELATIONSHIP OF BOTH A TEMPORAL AND LOGICAL NATURE. – SHOW FREQUENT USE OF PRONOUN I, - USES WITH CARE A WIDE RANGE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. – ALLOW FOR REMARKS TO BE QUALIFIED. RESTRICTED: PUBLIC CODE: LANGUAGE OF IMPLICIT MEANING CHARACTERISTIC: - USES SHORT, GRAMMATICAL SIMPLE, AND OFTEN UNFINISHED SENTENCES. – USES A FEW CONJUNCTION SIMPLY AND REPETIVELY, - USES LITLE SUBORDINATION. – TEND TOWARD A DISLOCATED PRESENTATION OF INFORMATION. – LIMITED IN THE USE OF ADJECTIVES AND ADVERBS. – MAKES FREQUENT USE OF IMPERSONAL PRONOUN SUBJECTS. CONFOUND REASON/CONCLUSION. - MAKES FREQUENT APPEAL TO SYMPATHETIC CIRCULARITY: YOU KNOW?    

34. CORRELATION BETWEEN SOCIOLINGUISTIC AND ENGLISH TEACHING: SOCIOLINGUISTIC AS THE SCIENCE PREPARECONCEPTS OF MECHANISM, AND THE SYSTEMATIC INFORMATION FOR THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE.

35.CONTRIBUTION OF SOCIOLINGUISTICS TO ENGLISH TEACHING IS THAT BY LEARNING SOCIOLINGUISTICS, WE CAN DEVELOP ENGLISH TEACHING WHICH IS SUITABLE WITH COMMUNITY NEEDS.

36. BLACK ENGLISH: THE ENGLISH USED BY BLACKS WHO LIVE IN NEW YORK CITYWHICH HAS CERTAIN PHONOLOGICAL, MORPHOLOGICAL, AND SYNTACTIC CHARACTERISTIC. E.G: WORDS LIKE THING AND THIS MAY BE PRONOUNCED AS AS TING AND DIS. 

PSYCHOLINGUISTIC

PSYCHOLINGUISTICS

1. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS: IS THE STUDY OF LANGUAGE BEHAVIOUR: HOW REAL (RATHER THA IDEAL) PEOPLE LEARN AND USE LANGUAGE TO COMMUNICATES IDEAS. DEALS WITH THE STUDY OF HOW PEOPLE LEARN AND COMPREHEND THE LANGUAGE (LEARN BY COMPREHENDING) AND HOW PEOPLE USE AND PRODUCE THE LANGUAGE (USE BY PRODUCTION)

2. IS THE STUDY OF TREE MENTAL PROCESSES: - THE STUDY OF LISTENING. SPEAKING AND ACQUISITION OF THE TWO SKILL BY CHILDREN (CLARK AND CLARK) MENTAL PROCESS IS CALLING KNOWLEDGE AND MEMORY. – BASICALLY DEALS WITH THE PROCESS OF DECODING (COMPRHENDING PHONOLOGY, SYNTAX, AND MORPHOLOGY BY LISTENING AND READING) AND INCODING (PRODUCING SEMANTICS BY SPEAKING AND WRITING) AND RELATES THE TWO PROCESSES TO THE MENTAL STATES OF THE LANGUAGE USERS.

3. LANGUAGE: IS A SYSTEM OF SIGNS (SPEECH SOUND, HAND GESTURES, LETTERS) USE TO COMMUNICATE. MESSAGES.

4. HUMAN LANGUAGE: IS AN ORAL AUDITORY COMMUNICATION SYSTEM (DITENTUKAN MELALUI CULTURAL TRANSMITTED) BECAUSE: A. A  SPEAKER AND LISTENER DO NOT HAVE TO LOOK AT ONE ANOTHER. AS DO THE DEAL USING HAND GESTURES LANGUAGE. B. A SPEAKER AND LISTENER DO NOT NEED NAN INSTRUMENT: AS DO WRITERS AND READERS, WHO NEED WRITING IMPLEMENTS AND WRITTEN TEXTS RESPECTIVELY. C. ONE CAN SPEAK AND LISTEN WHILE CARRYING OUT OTHER ACTIVITIES AS LONG AS THEY DO NOT INVOLVE THEIR MOUTH AND THEIR EARS. D. SPEAKING AND LISTENING NEED LITTLE EFFORTS. E. SPEECH IS ALSO FLEXIBLE BECAUSE A VARIETY OF SOUNDS THAT CAN BE DISCRIMINATED BY A MAMMALIAN EARS ARE PRODUCED AND THEN COMBINED BY THE INTELLIGENT SPEECH ORGAN. F. GENERAL FACTORS: AGE, INTELLIGENCE, APTITUDE, COGNITIVE STYLE, ATTITUDE, MOTIVATION, AND PERSONALITY.

5. BASIC PSYCHOLINGUISTICS PROCESS:

DECODING: RECEIVING, PERCEIVING SUSPHENDING, MEMORIZING, SAMPLING, LISTENING, READING

PRIOR KNOWLEDGE: PHONEME, WORD, MORPHEME, SENTENCE, MEANING SKILLSTRATEGIES: DISCOURSE COMPREHENSION

ENCODING: PRODUCING SPEAKING AND WRITING.

6. COMPETENCE: AN INTERNAL KNOWLEDGE WHICH COULDN’T BE SEEN BUT THROUGH THE PERFORMANCE, PERFORMANCE: THE ACTUAL USE OF LANGUAGE.

7. DAILY CONVERSATION (BROWN AND YALE) A. TRANSACTIONAL: TO GET SOME INFORMATION: LECTURING, ETC. B. INTERPERSONAL: TO CREATE GOOD INFORMATION: GREETING, POLITENESS, ETC.

8. THE NATURE OF LEARNER LANGUAGE: ERRORS: THE MAIN WAY OF INVESTIGATING SLA IS BY COLLECTING AND DESCRIBING SAMPLES OF LEARNER LANGUAGE.

9. DISTINGUISHING ERROR AND MISTAKE: MISTAKE: ARE DEVIATORS IN USAGE THAT REFLECT LEARNERS’ INABILITY TO USE WHAT S/HE KNOWS OF THE TL. IT REFLECTS OCCASIONAL END SOMETIME IN PERFORMANCE. ERROR: REFLECT GAP IN A LEARNER’S KNOWLEDGE; THEY OCCUR BECAUSE THE LEARNER DOESN’T KNOW WHAT IS CORRECT. WHILE MISTAKE: REFLECT SOMETIMES END IN PERFORMANCE WHICH OCCUR BECAUSE IN PARTICULAR EXAMPLES, THE LEARNER IS UNABLE TO PERFORM WHAT S/HE KNOWS. WAY TO DISTINGUISH: A. CHECKING THE CONSISTENCY OF LEARNER’S PERFORMANCE OFTEN (ERROR) SOMETIME (MISTAKE). ASKING LEARNERS TO TRY TO CORRECT THEIR OWN INCORRECT UTTERANCE: IF THEY ARE UNABLE TO PERFORM (ERROR), IF THEY ARE ABLE TO CORRECT (MISTAKE).

10. DESCRIBING ERROR: A. CLASSIFYING ERRORS INTO GRAMMATICAL CATEGORIES. B. IDENTIFYING THE DIFFERENT KINDS OF VERBAL ERRORS IN OUR SAMPLE. OMISSION: ALLOW  OUT AN ITEM THAT IS NEEDED FOR UTTERANCE TO BE CONSIDERED GRAMMATICAL. MISINFORMATION: USING ONE GRAMMATICAL FOR IN PLACE OF ANOTHER GRAMMATICAL FORM: BIG-BIGGER. MISORDERING: PUTTING THE WORDS IN AN UTTERANCE IN THE WRONG ORDER, (THEY HELP US TO DIAGNOSE LEARNER’S PROBLEMS AT ANY ONE STAGES OF THEIR DEVELOPMENT AND TO PLOT HOW CHANGES IN ERROR PATTERN OCCUR OVER TIME).

11. EXPLAINING ERROS: THE ERROR ARE SYSTEMATIC TO A  LARGE EXTENT, PREDICTABLE TO A CERTAIN EXTENT AND UNIVERSAL. TYPR OF ERRORS: A. OMISSION: LEARNERS LEAVE OUT THE ARTICLE ‘A’ ‘AN’ AND ‘THE’ AND ALSO LEAVE THE –S OF PLURAL NOUNS. B. OVERGENERALIZATIONS ERRORS: THE USE OF ‘EATED’ AND “ATE’ C. TRANSFER ERROR: ERROR WHICH REFLECT LEARNERS’ TRY TO MAKE USE OF THEIR L1 KNOWLEDGE.  

12. ERROR EVALUATION: IT IS NEEDED WHERE THE PURPOSE OF THE ERROR ANALYSIS IS TO HELP LEARNERS LEARN AN L2. KINDS OF ERROR: GLOBAL ERROR: VIOLATE THE OVERALL SENTENCE STRUCTURE AND THUS MAY MAKE IT DIFFICULT TO PROCESS: WORD ORDER ERROR. LOCAL ERROR: AFFEVT SINGLE ELEMENTS IN A SENTENCE (E.G. VERB) AND PERHAPS LESS LIKELY TO CREATE ANY PROCESSING PROBLEMS.

13. VARIABILITY IN LEARNER LANGUAGE: 1. LINGUISTIC CONTEXT: THE LANGUAGE THAT : SURROUND A PARTICULAR GRAMMAR FEATURE AND WHICH MAY INFLUENCE THE PARTICULAR FROM A LEARNER CHOOSES TO USE. 2. SITUATIONAL CONTEXT: THE ACTUAL SITUATIONS IN WHICH COMMUNICATION TAKES PLACE. IN THIS CASE, LEARNERS ARE NO DIFFERENT FROM NATIVE SPEAKER WHEN NATIVE SPEAKER OF ENGLISH ARE TALKING TO FRIENDS, THEY TEND TO SPEAK INFORMALLY, USING COLLOQUIAL EXPRESSIONS. 3. PSYCHOLINGUISTICS CONTENT: WHETHER LEARNER HAVE THE OPPORTUNITY TO PLAN THEIR PRODUCTION. THE ASPECTS OF THE CONTEXT IN WHICH INFLUENCE THE EXTENT TO WHICH LEARNERS ARE ABLE TO PLAN OR SELF CORRECT WHAT THEY SAY/WRITE.

14. INTERLANGUAGE (SLINKER): SYSTEMATIC KNOWLEDGE OF AN L2 THAT IS INDEPENDENT OF BOTH THE TL AND THE LEARNER’S TL. LEARNING THEORIES: 1. BEHAVIORIST LEARNING THEORY: - VIEWS ALL LEARNING AS THE INFORMATION OF HABITS THROUGH ENVIRONMENTAL SIMULATION. THUS, HABIT IS A STIMULUS RESPONSES CONNECTION (S-R) – CHILDREN RECEIVED LANGUAGE THROUGH S-R AND THROUGH REINFORCEMENT. – LEARNERS IMITATE MODEL OF CORRECT LANGUAGE AND RECEIVE POSITIVE REINFORCEMENT IF THEY ARE CORRECT AND NEGATIVE IF THEY ARE INCORRECT. 2. MENTALIST LEARNING THEORY: - IT EMPHASIZES THE LEARNERS’ INTRINSIC CAPACITY FOR ACQUIRING A LANGUAGE (CHILDREN DEVELOP LINGUISTIC COMPETENCE, BECAUSE EVERY NORMAL CHILD HAS A COMPETENCE) – ONLY HUMAN BEINGS ARE CAPABLE OF LEARNING LANGUAGE. – THE HUMAN MIND IS EQUIPED WITH A FACULTY FOR LEARNING LANGUAGE (LANGUAGE ACQUISITION DEVICE/LAD). THIS SEPARATE FROM THE FACULTIES RESPONSIBLE FOR OTHER KINDS OF COGNITIVE ACTIVITY: LOGICAL REASONING. – LAD IS THE PRIMARY DETERMINANT OF LA. – INPUT IS NEEDED ONLY TO FIRST THE OPERATION OF THE LAD.

15. CONCEPTS OF INTERLANGUAGE: 1. THE LEARNERS CONSTRUCT A SYSTEM OF ABSTRACT LINGUISTIC RULES WHICH UNDERLIES COMPREHENSION AND L2 PRODUCTION ABSTRACT LINGUISTIC RULES IS ALSO CALLED AS MENTAL GRAMMAR OR INTERLANGUAGE. 2. THE LEARNERS GRAMMAR IS PERMEABLE (INFLUENCE FROM THE OUT AND INSIDE)E.G: OMISSION, OVERGENERALIZATION, TRANSFER ERROR. 3. THE LEARNERS’ GRAMMAR IS TRANSITIONAL, THE LEARNER CHANGE THEIR GRAMMAR FROM ONE TIME TO ANOTHER BY ADDING RULES. DELETING RULES AND RECONSTRUCTINMG THE WHOLE SYSTEM, E.G: PAINY-PAINTING-PAINTED. 4. THE SYSTEM, WHICH LEARNERS CONSTRUCTION VARIABLE RULES. 5. LEARNERS EMPLOY VARIOUS LEARNING STRATEGIES TO DEVELOP THEIR INTERLANGUAGE (THE DIFFERENT KIND OF ERRORS LEARNERS PRODUCE, REFLECTS THE DIFFERENT KIND OF THEIR LEARNING STRATEGIES) 6. THE LEARNERS GRAMMAR IS LIKELY TO FOSSILIZE.

16, PSTCHOLINGUISTIC ASPECTS OF INTERLANGUAGE: 1. L1 TRANSFER: THE PROCESS BY WHICH THE LEARNER’S L1 INFLUENCES THE SLA. A. NEGATIVE TRANSFER/INTERFRENCES: LANGUAGE TRANSFER THAT RESULT IN ERRORS. B. POSITIVE TRANSFER: LANGUAGE TRANSFER THAT FACILITIES THE ACQUISITION OF TARGET LANGUAGE FORMS.  2. PROCESSING OPERATION: MECHANISMS THAT BLOCK LEARNERS’ ABILITY TO PERFORM THE TRANSFORMATION INVOLVED IN DIFFERENT GRAMMATICAL STRUCTURE. E.G PRODUCE, W-H QUESTION WITH INVERSION.A. CONONICAL STRATEGY: BLOCK THEM FROM INTERRUPTING THE BASIC S-V-O WORD ORDER. B. INITIALIZATION/FINALIZATION STRATEGY: ENABLES THEM TO MOVE ELEMENTS AT THE END OF A STRUCTURE TO THE BEGINNING AND VICE VERSA BUT BLOCK THEM MOVING ELEMENTS WITHIN A STRUCTURE. C. SUBORDINATE CLAUSE STRATEGY: PERMITS MOVEMENT OF ELEMENTS WITHIN. 3. COMMUNICATION STRATEGY: - HOW LEARNERS DEVELOP THEIR INTERLANGUAGE WHICH PROCESS RESPONSIBLE FOR LEARNERS’ ERROR. – IT REFLECT THE LEARNER’S DEVELOPMENT STAGE.

17. COMPUTATION MODEL OF SLA: INTAKE           INTAKE               L2 KNOWLEDGE                OUTPUT

1. INPUT: IS THE SAMPLE OF ORAL AND WRITTEN LANGUAGE LEARNERS IS EXPOSED WHILE LEARNING OR USING A PARTICULAR L2. INTAKE: IS THE PORTION OF THE INPUT THAT LEARNERS ATTEND TO AND TAKE IN SHORT TERM MEMORY. 2. THE LEARNER IS EXPOSED TO INPUT, WHICH IS PROCESSED IN 2 STAGES: - PARTS OF IT ARE ATTENDED TO AND TAKEN INTO SHORT TERM MEMORY INTAKE. – SOME OF THE INTAKES ARE STORED INTO LONG TERM MEMORY AS L2 KNOWLEDGE. 3. THE PROCESSES RESPONSIBLE FOR CREATING INTAKE AND L2 KNOWLEDGE ONE WITHIN THE BLACK BAR OF THE LEARNER’S MIND. WHERE THE LEARNER INTERLANGUAGE IS CONSTRUCTED. 4. L2 KNOWLEDGE IS USED BY LEARNER TO PRODUCE SPOKEN AND WRITTEN (LEARNER LANGUAGE).

18. ROLES OF OUTPUT IN SLA:- IT CAN SERVE A CONSCIOUSNESS RAISING FUNCTION BY HELPING LEARNERS TO GAPS IN THEIR INTERLANGUAGE. – IT HELPS THE LEARNERS TO TEST HYPOTHESIS. – IT IDENTIFIES PROBLEMS WITH THEIR LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND DISCUSSES WAYS WHICH THEY CAN BE PUT RIGHT.

19. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES IN SLA: A. LANGUAGE APTITUDE: THE SPECIAL ABILITY THAT PEOPLE HAVE IN VARYING DEGREE FOR LEARNING L2. (JOHN CARROLL) LANGUAGE APTITUDE COMPONENTS: 1. PHONEMIC CODING ABILITY: TO IDENTIFY THE SOUNDS OF A FL. SO THAT THEY CAN BE REMEMBERED LATER SOUND ‘TH’ 2. GRAMMATICAL SENSITIVITY: TO RECOGNIZE THE GRAMMATICAL FUNCTIONS WORDS IN SENTENCES: S. V AND O OF A SENTENCE. 3. INDUCTIVE LANGUAGE LEARNING ABILITY: TO IDENTIFY PATTERN CORRESPONDENCE AND RELATION BETWEEN FORM AND MEANING. E.G: ‘TO” (DENOTE DIRECTION) AND “AT” (CAN DENOTE LOCATION). 4. ROTE LEARMING ABILITY: TO FORM AND REMEBER ASSOCIATON BETWEEN STIMUI.

20. LEARNER WHO GOT SCORE HIGHLY IN APTITUDE TEST. TYPICALLY LEARN RAPIDLY AN ACHIEVE HIGHER LEVELS OF L2 PROFICIENCY THAN THE LEARNER WHO OBTAIN THE SCORES. 

ENGLISH LITERATURE

LITERATURE

1. LITERATURE (JOHN BURGES WILSON): THE USE OF WORDS IN SUCH BEAUTIFUL WAY AND BY REASONS OF SUBJECT MATTER WHICH GAVES AN INTERISTING FEELING TO THE READER.

2. THE BRANCHES OF ENGLISH LITERATURE: POETRY: FUNCTIONS AS A MEDIUM OF COMMUNICATION, THE EFFECTS IS PRODUCED IN THE MIND OF THE READER OR LISTENER, COMMUNICATES BY SUGGESTION AND IMPLICATION. CHARACTERISTICS OF POETIC LANGUAGE: A. THE USE OF IMAGERY (THING) WHICH OFTEN CONCRETE USED TO AROUSE AND APPEAL THE RHE READERS OR LISTENER PHYSICAL SENSE (SEEING, HEARING, SENSASITION) WITH PURPOSE TO AROUSE LISTENER/READER IMAGINATION. B. THE USE OF FIGURATIVE LANGUAGE (WORD/EXPRESSION USED NOT ONLY IN THEIR LITERAL BUT ALSO IN THE LEXICAL MEANING. FIGURE OF RHEOTORIC SPEECH: 1. BASED ON THE FACULTY OF HUMAN INTELLECT:  - RESEMBLANCE: METAPHOR, ALLEGORY, PARABLE, FABLE, SIMILE, ETC (COMPARISON “LIKE”) - DIFFERENCE ANTITHESIS (SETTING ONE WORD IDEA AGAINST ANOTHER): EPYGRAM, ANTITHESIS, PUN, CLIMAX, ANTICLIMAX/BATHOS) 2. IMAGINATION: PERSONIFICATION, APOSTTHROPE, VISION, HYPERBOLE, ETC.  3. INDIRECTNESS: IRONY, SARCASM, EUPHEMISME, LITOTES. ETC.C. THE USE OF ARCHAIC LANGUAGE (ARCHAISM). YOU-THOU, YOU-THEE. (SUBJECT FROM).  D. USING SPECIAL SYNTAX IN ORDER TO PRODUCE RHYME/RHYTHM OR TO ACHIEVE OTHER POETIC PURPOSE.

3. VERIFICATION POETRY: RHYME: A. IS THE SIMILARITY OF SOUNDS AT THE END OF LINES. TUNE-JUNE, B. FUNCTIONS AS A OBLIGATING AND COMBINE ELEMENT IN STANZA AND PRODUCES A BEAUTIFUL EFFECT.  C.PATTERNS: A-B-A-B/A-B-C-D/A-A-B-B. RYTHM: A. IS THE REGULARITY OF THE STRESS PATTERN, B. TYPES: - INTERNAL (FOUND I, SIDE THE LINE) – EXTERNAL (FOUND FROM THE SIMILARITY OF THE RYTHM BETWEEN TWO LINES). – DIFFERENT RYTHMS TEND TO PRODUCE DIFFERENT FEELINGS. SOUND EFFECT: 1. ALITERATION: REPETITION OF THE CONSONANT SOUND OF WORDS IN A LINE. 2. ASSONANCE: REPETITION OF THE VOWEL SOUND OF WORDS IN A LINE. 3. CONSONANCE: REPETITION OF THE FIRST AND FINAL SOUND OF WORDS IN A LINE. DEAR, DOOR. FOOT: IS A UNIT OF STRESS PATTERN AS THE EFFORT OF THE POET TO TAKE FEELING TO THE READER RESULTS IN VARIOUS TYPES OF FOOT. TYPES: LAMBIC, CONSIST OF: 1. UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE AND 1 STRESSED SYLLABLE. 2.  IROHAIC: CONSIST OF 1 UNSTRESSED SYLLABLE AND 1 STRESSED SYLLABLE. 3. ANAPESTIC: CONSIST OF 2 UNSTRESSED SYLLABLES AND 1 STRESSED SYLLABLE. METRE IS THE NUMBER ON FEET. SCANNING: DESCRIBING A LINE OR STANZA WITH RESPECT TO ITS NUMBER AND TYPE OF FEET. FORM OF STANZA: THE NUMBER OF LINES IN A POEM. SEXTET: 6 LINES, SONNET: 14 LINES. QUARTETTE: 5 LINES. OCTAVE: 8 LINES. SEPTETTE: 7 LINES. FREE VERSE: NO SPECIFIC NUMBER OF LINES. HEROIC COUPLET: A STANZA CONSIST OF TWO COUPLETS. BLANK VERSE: UNRHYMED.

4. TYPE OF POEM: HYMNE: A POEM OF ADORATION. (HENRY LAWSON). NARRATIVE POEM: STORY, BALLAD. LYRIC: A POEM WHICH EXPRESSES FEELING/DESCRIBES SOMETHING. DRAMATIC: A POEM WHICH READ OUT IN A DRAMA PERFORMANCE. DIDACTIC: A POEM WHICH TEACHERS MORAL LESSONS, ELEGY: A POEM OF SAD FEELING OF LOSING SOMEONE. ODE: A POEM OF PRAISE. LIMERICK: A POEM OF JOKE NON-SENSE POEM. ( JUST FOR RIDE/OLD MEN FORM PERU)

5. ROBERT BURNS-A RED RED ROSE, F.W. BOURDILLON-THOUSAND EYES, T.HOOD-THE DEATH BED, ALFRED LORD TENYSON-BREAK,BREAK,BREAK. R.HERRICK-COUNSEL TO GIRLS. NOEL LANE-THE GARDEN, WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE-MADRIGAL.

6. PROSE: ANY WRITING IN NON VERSE FORMS: ANALYZING PROSE: EXTRINSIC VALUEOF THE WORK: BIOGHRAPHY AND BACKGROUND OF THE WRITTEN. INTRINSIC VALUE: THEME, SETTING, CHARACTER.CHARACTERIZATION, PLOT: EXPOSITION-RAISING ACTION-CLIMAX, FALLING ACTION, AND RESOLUTION. THE STYLE, SUSPENSE AND FORESHADOWNING. TONE: THE NOISE OR ATTITUDE OF THE AUTHOR TOWARD THE SUBJECT, CHARACTER AND THE READERS.

7. KINDS OF PROSE: SHORT STORY: NORMALLY READ AT ONE SETTING, HAS A FEW CHARACTER, TYPICALLY LIMITS ITSELF TO A SHORT STORY, AND RATHER SHOWING ITS CHARACTERS DEVELOPING WILL SHOW THEM AT SOME EXPOSING MOMENT OF CRISIS WHETHER INTERNAL/EXTERNAL, FOCUSES UPON A PARTICULAR EPISODE OR SITUATION RATHER THAN A SERIES OF EVENTS. NOVEL: THE EXTENDED PROSE FICTION THAT APPEAR IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO BECOME THE MAJOR LITERARY EXPRESSION OF THE MODERN WORLD. IS MORE COMPLICATED AND LONG STORY, HAS MORE CHARACTERS AND COMPLEX PLOT. TELLING ABOUT CHARACTER IN A LONG PERIOD, HAS SEVERAL ELEMENTS, SUCH AS: PLOT: THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENT. CHARACTER AND CHARACTERIZATION, SETTING: PLACE AND TIME TAKEN. STYLE: THE SHCHEME AND LANGUAGE USED. THEME. TONE: THE ATTITUDE OF THE AUTHOR TOWARDS THE SUBJECT, CHARACTER, AND READERS, NOVELLETE: IS SHORT NOVEL OR LONG SHORT STORY, NOVELLA: IS RATHER LONGER THAN A STORY. ESSAY: IS SHORT PART WRITING ON ONE SUBJECT.

8. DRAMA: IS ANY WRITING IN THE FORM OF VERSE PROSE DIALOGUE INTENDED TO PERFORMED ON THE STAGE BASED ON THE SCENARIO AND SCRIPT. IS A LITERARY WORK BECAUSE THERE IS A TEXT A PLAY THAT WILL BE PERFORMED ON THE STAGE. 

9. ELEMENTS OF DRAMA: THEME, CHARACTERS ARE ACTIVE/MAJOR CHARACTER: THE CHARACTER WHO PERFORM ACTS AND USUALLY UNDERGO CERTAIN CHANGES AS RESULT OF THE ACTION OF THE PLAY. AND PASSIVE/MINOR CHARACTERS ARE CHARACTERS IN PLAYS WHO DO NOT CHANGE FROM BEGINNING UNTIL THE ENDING. PLOT: - A SERIES OF EVENT WHICH PRESENT A SHORT SYNOPSIS OF THE MAJOR ACTION OF THE DRAMA IN QUESTION, SO THAT THE CHARACTER RELATIONSHIP WILL BECOME CLARIFIED REFERENCE TO THE MAIN EVENTS OF THE PLAY.  – THE NATURE OF THE PLOT, THE WAY IN WHICH EVENTS ARE RELATED TO EACH OTHER AND THEIR DRAMATIC EFFECT.

10. PLOT/DRAMATIC STRUCTURE: EXPOSITION: SHOWS SOME SORT OF CHANGE TAKING PLACE IN THE CHARACTERS’ LIVE/THE SOCIAL ORDER. RAISING ACTION: SITUATION LOWER TO HIGHER. CLIMAX: COMLICATION ARISES FROM THIS CHANGE AS THE CHARACTERS SEEK TO COME TO TERMS WITH THE PROBLEMS THAT HAVE DEVELOPED TO THAT SENSE OF DISORDER PREVAILS. FALLING ACTION, RESOLUTION: SUDDENLY EVENT WHICH CONSEQUENT SUFFERING: FLOOD, EARTHQUAKE OR THE CHARACTERS AT LEAST COME TO TERMS WITH NEW SITUATION THAT HAS DEVELOPED. STYLE, SETTING (TIME AND PLACE WHICH THE EVENTS TAKES)

11. DIFFERENCES BETWEEN DRAMA AND TEXT PLAY: DRAMA: CAN BE ENJOYED BY WATCHING IT, THE DARAM’S WRITER STARTS THE STORY WITH PUBLIC ISSUES, NEEDS ACTRESS/ACTORS TO PERFORM ON THE STAGE TO AUDIENCE. TEXT PLAY: CAN BE ENJOY BY READING IT, CAN ALSO BE PERFORMED ON THE STAGE.

12. DIFFERENCE CHARACTERISTICS OF DRAMA AND NOVEL:

DRAMA	NOVEL
A. ISN’ T PURE LITERATURE: MIX ART STAND UP WITH THE ELEMENTS OF AGE SETTING AND INTERPRETATION/SECOND ART.	A. A PURE LITERATURE, BECAUSE IT IS INDEPENDENT OF THE SECOND ART.
B. THERE IS MORE ACTUALITY AND CLEARNESS THROUGH DIALOGUE ACTION OR MOVEMENT. COSTUME, MUSIC AND SCENERY THAT CAN DIRECTLY BE ENJOYED BY THE AUDIENCE.	B. THE ACTUALITY AND CLEARNESS SUBSTITUTED WITH NARATIVE REPRESENTATION WHICH THE READ COULD ENJOY DIRECTLY.
C. ISN’T SELF CONTAINED	C. SELF CONTAINED.
D. PLAY IS PLANNED TO BE ENJOYED AT A SINGLE PURPOSE.	D. THAT IS INTEREST WILL BE MAINTAINED AND RETURN TO IT WHEN EVEN OVER.
E. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLOT IS ELIMINATED.	E. THE DEVELOPMENT OF THE PLOT IS UNLIMITTED.
F. THE CHARACTERIZATION CAN BE ACKNOWLEDGED BY AUDIENCE DIRECTLY.	F. THE CHARACTERIZATION IS DIFFICULT TO BE ACKNOWLEDGED BY THE READER.
G. THE SETTING IS EXPOSED IN REALITY BUT ONLY THE MOST IMPORTANT NATURAL BACKGROUND/ENVIRONMENT.	G. SETTING INCLUDES THE ENTIRE ENVIRONMENT OF A STORY, THE MANNER. CUSTOM WAY OF LIFE WHICH ENTER INTO ITS COMPOSITION AS WELL.

13. PLAYWRIGHT’S AND NOVELIST’S BENEFIT: PLAYWRIGHT: HAS TO HOLD GOOD ON THEORETICAL OR THE SECOND ART. NOVELIST: CAN DESCRIBE SETTING TO THE DETAILS AND IN A LONGER DESCRIPTION AND HIS WORK HAS TO BE JUDGED BY THE ACCURACY AND POWER OF HIS DESCRIPTION.

14. DRAMATIC FORM MEANS HOW THE MATERIAL IS PRESENTED WITHIN THE BASIC STRUCTURE.

15. KINDS OF DRAMA: A. COMEDY:  THERE IS DISORDER THAT THREATENS THE CHARACTERS’ LIVES AND SOCIAL CONCORD IS OVERCOMES. 1. ROMANTIC COMEDY: DEAL WITH HOW SERIOUSLY YOUNG PEOPLE TAKE LOVE AND HOW STUPIDLY LOVE MAKES THEM BEHAVE. EG. A MIDSUMMER NIGHT DREAMS (1995) SHAKESPARE. THE MERCHANT OF VENIC (1596). 2. TRAGIC COMEDY: - IS THE DARKER EDITION OF ROMANTIC COMEDY. IN WHICH BAD LUCK AND DEATH CHARACTER. – THE MASTER: WILLIAM SHAKESPARE. 3. SATIRIC COMEDY: IT CLAIMS TO LAUGH HUMAN OUT FULLY THROUGH CARICATURE. : VOLPONE (1606) VERY MAN IN HIS HUMOR (1598). 4. COMEDY OF MANNERS: THE FOCUS IS DIRECTLY ON MORAL AND MANNERS IN SOCIETY. THE CHARACTERS ARE PLAUSIBLE. EG. THE PLAYBOY OF WESTERN WORLD (SYNGE 1907). 5. RESTORATION COMEDY: IS A TYPE OF WITTY, BOWDY COMEDY WRITTEN AFTER THE RESTORATION OF CHARLES II IN 1660, WHICH INCLUDED INTO COMEDY OF MANNERS AND DEALS WITH THE SEXUAL RELATION OF MEN AND WOMEN SUITABLE TO TRADITION SOCIETY. EG: THE COUNTRY WIFE (WICKBERLEY, 1675) 6. SENTIMENTAL COMEDY: A SIMPLISTIC FORM OF COMEDY EXPLORING THE KINDNESS OF FAMILY LIFE. WITH A STRESS HOW GOODNESS IS REWARDED. EG: THE RIVALS (SHERIDAN, 1775).   B. TRAGEDY: THERE IS THE FALLING ISOLATED OF SIGNS OF ORDER AS WE ARE CONFRONTED BY THE MOST SURPRISING FROM OF DISORDER, DEATH IT SELF. SO GREAT IT FACES UP THE BAD, THE MOST EXTREME FORMS OF DISORDER, CRAZINESS, KILLING, WHICH ARE ALWAYS PATTERNED. IS A PLAY ENDS WITH THE DEATH OF THE MAIN CHARACTER “THE WILD DUCK” (IBSEN, 1884). C. FICTION AND NON FICTION: FICTION: IS AN IMAGERY ACCOUNT THAT DEALS WITH EVENTS AND ACTIONS, SUFFERED AND DONE BY HUMAN BEING IN THEIR LIVES. THE PERSON AND TIME ARE NOT REAL. THEY HAPPEN OR EXIST IN THE WRITER’S IMAGINATION. NONFICTION: IS THE STORY WHICH DEALS WITH THE FACTS HAPPENED IN THE PAST. THE PERSON AND TIME ARE EXACTLY TRUE.

16. CHARACTERISTICS OF MODERN DRAMA: 1. THE REPLACEMENT OF RELIGIOUS CERTAINTY AND MORAL ABSOLUTE WITH SCEPTISM DOUBT, INTELLECTUAL RELATIVISM (SCEPTIVIDM AND DOUBT). 2. ALLITERATION FROM A SOCIETY. SOCIETY IS SEEN AS CORRUPT, MATERIALISTIC, HYPOCRITICAL. 3. FASCINATION WITH HUMAN SUBJECTIVITY AND ANXIETY. 4. DOUBT AS THE VALUE OF RATIONAL THOUGHT. 5. BOLD EXPERIMENTATION/CURIOSITY. 6. DOUBT AS THE MEANINGFULNESS OF HUMAN LIFE PURPOSELESSNESS.

17. KINDS OF CHARACTERS (THE PEOPLE IN THE PLAY): 1. HERO (PROTAGONIS). 2. VILLAIN (ANTAGONIS).

18. WAYS OF PRESENTING CAHARACTERS: 1. STRESSING IDEALISM. 2. PSYCHO ANALYSIS (CHARACTER WERE REPRESENTATIVE OF HUMAN BEING)

19. ANALYZING CHARACTER AND CHARACTERIZATION IN DRAMA. 1. KNOW THE BACKGROUND. 2. OBSERVE  THE SITUATION DEVELOPMENT. 3. OBSERVE THE PLOT. 4. UNDERSTAND THE STONE (THREATENING, DEPRESSING, ETC).

20. ERA OF DRAMA: 1. ELIZABETH AND JACOBEAN (RENAISSANCE) KYOT, THE SPANISH TRAGEDY (1987). SHAKESPARE, HAMLET (1600). MARLOWE, DR. FAUSTUS (1592). TAMBURLAINE (1587). EDWARD II (1593). BEN JONSON. VOLPONE (1600). 2. MEDIEVAL DRAMA (FOURTEENTH CENTURY). A. MIRACLE PLAYS: DEAL WITH CHRISTIAN HISTORY OF HUMANFROM THE CREATION AT THE LAST JUDGEMENT AND FOCUSES ON THE EVENTS FROM THE BIBLE. B. MORALITY PLAYS: FOCUS ON MORAL PROBLEMS THAT TO FACE MAN AS THE JOURNEY FROM BIRTH TO DATE AND THE ALLEGORICAL PLAYS. 3. NINETEENTH CENTURY DRAMA (MELODRAMA): - A SENSATIONAL ROMANTIC PLAY FULL OF IMPOSSIBLE EVENTS WHERE THE GOOD AND ALWAYS REWARDED AND THE CRIMINAL ALWAYS PUNISHED. – THE CENTRAL INTEREST IS THE PLOT WHICH USUALLY DEPEND ON SECRET WHICH IS NOT EXPLAINED UNTIL THE LAST ACT. EG: A DOLL’S HOUSE (IBSEN, 1879) MR. WARREN’S PROFESSION (SHAW, 1894). 4. TWENTIETH CENTURY DRAMA: FOCUSES ON THE GAP BETWEEN SOCIAL AND ETHICAL FRAMEWORK THE CHARACTERS HAVE BEEN RAISED IN THE REALITY OF THEIR DIFFICULT SITUATION WHERE THESE VALUES ARE EXPOSED AS LIMITED. EG: SHAW, ARMS AND THE MAN 1972, SYNGE THE PLAUBOY OF THE WESTERN WORLD.

21. WILLIAM SHAKESPARE: THE BRITISH DRAMATIST WHO DOMINATED THE LITERARY WORK IN ENGLAND: POEMS, DARAMS, PLAYS (COMEDY AND TRAGEDY).

22. WILLIAM SHAKESPARE IN COMEDY: ROMANTIC COMEDY: A MIDSUMMER NIGHT DREAMS, 1596. TWELFTH NIGHT, 1601. THE MERCHANT OF VENICE, 1596. MEASURE FOR MEASURE 1604. HISTORY PLAYS: RICHARD II 1595. HERRY IV 1596-8. ROMAN/TRAGIC PLAY: JULIUS CAESAR 1599. ANTHONY AND CLEOPATRA 1606. TRAGEDIES: HAMLET 1600, KING LEOR 1605. MACHETH 1606. O’THELO 1604. ROMANCES: THE WINTER’S TALE 1610, THE TEMPEST 1611.

PROSE.

1. DEFINITION OF LITERATURE: LITERATURE IS A WRITING VALUED AS WORKS OF ART, WE LEARN LTERATURE TO KNOW EXACTLY ABOUT THE DEVELOPMENT OF LITERARY WORKS, TO FAMILIARIZE WITH THE WRITERS TOO. AND TO GIVE SUCH AN HUMOR OR RESPECT TO THE VALUES OF LITERARY. BESIDE THAT, THROUGH LEARNING LITERATURE WE CAN TRY TO MAKE SUCH A LITERARY WORK.

2. DIFFERENCE BETWEEN PROSE AND POEM: 1. THE NATURE OF POEM: POEM IS THE SPONTANEOUS OVERFLOW OF POWERFUL FEELINGS RECOLLECTED IN SILENCE. IT CONSISTS OF THEME, INTENTION, TONE, AND FEELINGS. TONE IS THE WRITERS ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE READERS. FEELING IS THE WRITERS ATTITUDE TOWARDS THE SUBJECT MATTER.  2. THE NATURE OF PROSE: PROSE IS ANY WRITING IN NON VERSE FORMS. BASED ON THE HISTORICAL PERIOD PROSE IS DIVIDED INTO TWO CATEGORIES. THEY ARE OLD PROSE AND MODERN PROSE. A. SORTS OF OLD PROSE: A. SORT OF OLD PROSE: - LEGEND IS OLD STORY HANDED DOWN FROM THE PAST, ESPECIALLY ONE OF DOUBTFUL TRUTH. E.G: THE LEGEN OF KING ARTHUR. – MYTH IS STORY HANDED DOWN FORM OLDEN TIMES, ESPECIALLY CONCEPTS OR BELIEFS ABOUT THE EARLY HISTORY OF A RACE EXPLANATIONS OF NATURAL EVENTS, SUCH AS ANCIENT GREEK’S MYTH. – FABLE IS SHORT TALE WHICH IS NOT BASED ON FACT, ESPECIALLY ONE WITH ANIMALS IN IT, AND INTENDED TO GIVE MORAL TEACHING. – FAIRY TALE: IS A TALE ABOUT FAIRIES.- FOLKTALE: IS A POPULAR STORY HANDED DOWN ORALLY FROM PART GENERATION. CHARACTERISTICS OF OLD PROSE ARE: IT IS ANONYMOUS, IT HAS MORAL LESSON, IT HAS SIMPLE LANGUAGE, IT IS TOLD FROM ONE GENERATION TO OTHER GENERATION. B. MODERN PROSE: - SHORT STORY: IS NORMALLY READ AT ONE SETTING, IT HAS FEW CHARACTERS IT TYPICALLY LIMITS ITSELF TO A BRIEF SPAN OF TIME, AND RATHER SHOWING ITS CHARACTER DEVELOPING AND MATURING WILL SHOW THEM AT SOME REVEALING MOMENT OF CRISIS WHETHER INTERNAL OR EXTERNAL. IT ALSO FOCUSES UPON A PARTICULAR EPISODE OR SITUATION RATHER THAN A SERIES OF EVENTS. – NOVEL: IS THE LENGTHENED PROSE FICTION THAT APPEAR IN THE EIGHTEENTH CENTURY TO BECOME THE MAJOR LITERARY EXPRESSION OF THE MODERN WORLD IT IS MORE DIFFICULT AND LONG STORY/ IT HAS MORE CHARACTERS AND COMPLEX PLOT. IT TELLS ABOUT CHARACTERS IN ALONG PERIOD. IT HAS SEVERAL ELEMENTS, SUCH AS: PLOT: (THE MOST IMPORTANT EVENTS) CHARACTER AND CHARACTERIZATION, SETTING (PLACE AND TIME TAKEN). STYLE (THE SCHEME AND TIME TAKEN), THEME, TONE (THE ATTITUDE OF THE AUTHOR TOWARDS THE SUBJECT, CHARACTER, AND THE READERS). SUSUPENSE/FORESHADOWING. POINT OF VIEW. C. NOVELLETE: IS A SHORT NOVEL OR LONG SHORT STORY. C. NOVELLA: IS RATHER LONGER THAN A SHORT STORY, D. ESSAY: IS SHORT PART WRITING ON ONE SUBJECT.  

3. ANALYZING OF PROSE: EXTRINSIC VALUE: BIOGHRAPHY AND BACKGROUNF OF THE WRITER. INTRINSIC VALUE: A. THEME, B. CHARACTERS AND CHARACTERIZATION, C. SETTING OF PLACE AND TIME, D. PLOT: IT IS A SERIES OF EVENTS WHICH PRESENTS A BRIEF SYNOPSIS OF THE MAJOR ACTION OF THE DRAMA IN QUESTION, SO THAT THE CHARACTERS RELATIONSHIPS WILL BECOME CLARIFIED BY REFERENCE TO THE EVENTS OF THE PLAY, THE NATURE OF THE PLOT, THE WAY IN WHICH EVENTS ARE RELATED TO EACH OTHER AND THEIR DRAMATIC EFFECT. IT’S ALSO A SERIES OF EVENTS WHICH COVERS: EXPOSITION: IS THE BASIC WHICH SHOWS SOME SORT OF CHANGE TAKING PLACE IN THE CHARACTERS’ LIVE /THE SOCIAL ORDER IT IS OFTEN CALLED AS THE INTRODUCTION OF A STORY. RISING ACTION: IS A STORY PLACE WHERE SUSPENSE LOWER TO HIGHER OR PROBLEM ENCOUNTERED BY THE MAIN CHARACTER. IT IS ALSO A RUNNING POINT OR THE COMPLICATION THAT ARISES FROM THIS CHANGE AS THE CHARACTERS SEEK TO COME TO TERMS WITH THE PROBLEMS THAT HAVE DEVELOPED TO THAT A SENSE OF DISORDER AVERAGE. CLIMAX: IS THE MOST DIFFICULT PROBLEM OR SITUATION. FALLING ACTION. RESOLUTION: IS A SUDDEN EVENT WHICH CONSEQUENT SUFFERING, FLOOD, EARTHQUAKE OR THE CHARACTERS AT LEAST COME TO TERMS WITH NEW SITUATION THAT HAS DEVELOPED. E. STYLE, F. POINT OF VIEW IS THE ROLE OF THE WRITER IN THE STORY AT THE FIRST OR THE THIRD PERSON, G. FORESHADOWING AND SUSPENSE.

4. READER’S RESPONSE STRATEGY: IT COVERS THE FOLLOWING STEPS: ENGAGING: THE READERS GETS INVOLVED IN THE STORY. CONCEIVING: THE READERS TRIES TO COMPREHEND THE STORY. EXPLAINING AND INTERPRETING: THE READERS FINDS OUT THE SIGNAL AND DESCRIBES THEN. CONNECTING: THE READER CAN COMPREHEND THE SITUATION WHICH FOUND OUT IN THE STORY TO THE ONE THAT SHE OR HE HAS MET. JUDGING: THE READER CAN MAKE SOME CONCLUSIONS.